History

The name “India” originates from the Classical Latin term ‘India’, which was used to describe South Asia and an indeterminate area to its east. This Latin term itself came from the Hellenistic Greek ‘India’ , derived from the ancient Greek ‘Indos’, and further traced back to Old Persian ‘Hindush’, which referred to an eastern province of the Achaemenid Empire. Ultimately, the name is related to the Sanskrit word ‘Sindhu’, meaning “river,” specifically the Indus River and its surrounding basin. The ancient Greeks referred to the people of this region as ‘Indoi’ , which means “the people of the Indus.”

The term “Bharat” is used in Indian epic poetry and the Indian Constitution and appears in various forms across many Indian languages. It is a modern version of the historical name “Bharatavarsha,” which originally referred to North India. From the mid-19th century, “Bharat” increasingly became a popular indigenous name for India.

“Hindustan” is a name of Middle Persian origin that became widely used by the 13th century. It was commonly employed during the Mughal Empire era. The meaning of “Hindustan” has varied over time, sometimes referring to the region that includes present-day northern India and Pakistan, or more broadly to almost the entire Indian subcontinent.

India, officially known as the Republic of India (Bhārat Gaṇarājya), is a South Asian country. It ranks as the seventh-largest country by area and, as of June 2023, is the most populous nation in the world. Since its independence in 1947, it has been the largest democracy globally. India is bordered by the Indian Ocean to the south, the Arabian Sea to the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal to the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the north, and Bangladesh and Myanmar to the east. In the Indian Ocean, it is near Sri Lanka and the Maldives, and its Andaman and Nicobar Islands have maritime borders with Thailand, Myanmar, and Indonesia.

India, officially known as the Republic of India (Bhārat Gaṇarājya), is a South Asian country. It ranks as the seventh-largest country by area and, as of June 2023, is the most populous nation in the world. Since its independence in 1947, it has been the largest democracy globally. India is bordered by the Indian Ocean to the south, the Arabian Sea to the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal to the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the north, and Bangladesh and Myanmar to the east. In the Indian Ocean, it is near Sri Lanka and the Maldives, and its Andaman and Nicobar Islands have maritime borders with Thailand, Myanmar, and Indonesia.

This ancient text documents the beginnings of Hinduism in India. The Dravidian languages were largely replaced in northern and western India, and by 400 BCE, Hinduism had developed a caste system, while Buddhism and Jainism offered alternative social structures. Early political entities such as the Maurya and Gupta Empires arose in the Ganges Basin, contributing to a rich period of creativity, though also marked by declining status for women and the formalization of untouchability.

During the early medieval period, Christianity, Islam, Judaism, and Zoroastrianism became established along India’s coasts. Central Asian Muslim armies intermittently invaded northern India, leading to the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate and integrating northern India into the medieval Islamic world. The Vijayanagara Empire in the 15th century created a lasting composite Hindu culture in southern India, while Sikhism emerged in the Punjab, challenging institutionalized religion. The Mughal Empire, founded in 1526, brought two centuries of relative peace and left behind a legacy of exquisite architecture. British influence began with the East India Company and expanded, turning India into a colonial economy. British Crown rule started in 1858, and though the promises to Indians were fulfilled gradually, technological advancements and modern educational and public life concepts took root. A significant nationalist movement advocating nonviolent resistance played a crucial role in ending British rule. In 1947, the British Indian Empire was divided into the Hindu-majority Dominion of India and the Muslim-majority Dominion of Pakistan, leading to massive loss of life and migration.

Since 1950, India has operated as a federal republic with a democratic parliamentary system. It is characterized by its pluralistic, multilingual, and multi-ethnic society. The population grew from 361 million in 1951 to nearly 1.4 billion in 2022. During this period, per capita income increased from $64 to $2,601 annually, and literacy rates rose from 16.6% to 74%. From being relatively impoverished in 1951, India has transformed into a rapidly growing major economy and a significant hub for information technology, with a burgeoning middle class. It has a space program with various extraterrestrial missions and its cultural exports in movies, music, and spiritual teachings are increasingly influential globally. India has made significant strides in reducing poverty, though this has been accompanied by rising economic inequality. As a nuclear-armed state with high military expenditure, India faces ongoing territorial disputes over Kashmir with Pakistan and China. Socio-economic challenges include gender inequality, child malnutrition, and increasing air pollution. India’s land is exceptionally biodiverse, featuring four biodiversity hotspots and 21.7% forest cover, which supports a variety of wildlife in protected areas and beyond.

Between 2000 and 500 BCE, many regions of the Indian subcontinent transitioned from Chalcolithic cultures to those of the Iron Age. During this time, the Vedas, the oldest sacred texts of Hinduism, were composed. Historians have studied these texts to suggest that a Vedic culture was present in the Punjab region and the upper Gangetic Plain. This era also saw several waves of Indo-Aryan migration into the subcontinent from the northwest. The caste system, which established a social hierarchy of priests, warriors, and free peasants while marginalizing indigenous peoples by deeming their occupations impure, also emerged during this period. On the Deccan Plateau, archaeological findings indicate the development of chiefdom-level political organization. In South India, the shift to settled life is evidenced by numerous megalithic monuments from this period, along with signs of agriculture, irrigation systems, and craft traditions.

In the late Vedic period, around the 6th century BCE, the small states and chiefdoms of the Ganges Plain and northwestern regions had evolved into 16 prominent oligarchies and monarchies known as the mahajanapadas. The rise of urbanization during this time led to the emergence of non-Vedic religious movements, two of which developed into independent religions. Jainism gained prominence through the teachings of Mahavira, while Buddhism, founded by Gautama Buddha, attracted followers from various social classes, marking the beginning of recorded history in India. Both religions championed renunciation as a key ideal and established enduring monastic traditions. By the 3rd century BCE, the kingdom of Magadha had absorbed or diminished neighboring states, forming the Mauryan Empire. Initially believed to have controlled most of the subcontinent except the far south, it is now understood that its core areas were surrounded by large autonomous regions. The Mauryan rulers are noted not only for their empire-building and effective governance but also for Ashoka’s shift from militarism to the promotion of Buddhist teachings.

Sangam literature in Tamil reveals that between 200 BCE and 200 CE, the southern Indian peninsula was governed by the Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas. These dynasties engaged in extensive trade with the Roman Empire, as well as with regions in West and Southeast Asia. In North India, Hinduism during this period reinforced patriarchal norms within families, leading to greater subordination of women. By the 4th and 5th centuries, the Gupta Empire had developed a sophisticated system of administration and taxation in the Ganges Plain, which later Indian kingdoms would emulate. During Gupta rule, a revitalized form of Hinduism that emphasized devotion over ritual management emerged. This cultural renaissance was reflected in a flourishing of sculpture and architecture, supported by the urban elite. Additionally, classical Sanskrit literature thrived, and there were significant advancements in Indian science, astronomy, medicine, and mathematics.

The early medieval period in India, spanning from 600 to 1200 CE, was characterized by the presence of regional kingdoms and significant cultural diversity. Harsha of Kannauj, who ruled over much of the Indo-Gangetic Plain from 606 to 647 CE, faced setbacks when he tried to expand southward, being defeated by the Chalukya ruler of the Deccan. His successor’s attempt to expand eastward also failed, with the Pala king of Bengal emerging victorious. Similarly, when the Chalukyas tried to push south, they were defeated by the Pallavas, who were then contested by the Pandyas and the Cholas from even further south. No ruler during this period managed to establish an empire with control extending significantly beyond their core territories. During this era, as agricultural economies expanded and encroached on pastoral lands, pastoral communities and new ruling classes were integrated into the caste system, which began to display regional variations.

Following the 10th century, Central Asian Muslim nomadic tribes, utilizing fast cavalry and large armies united by ethnicity and religion, repeatedly invaded the northwestern plains of South Asia. This led to the establishment of the Islamic Delhi Sultanate in 1206. The sultanate, which controlled much of North India and made incursions into South India, initially disrupted the Indian elites but generally allowed the vast non-Muslim population to maintain their own laws and customs. By successfully repelling Mongol invasions in the 13th century, the sultanate shielded India from the destruction experienced by West and Central Asia, leading to a significant influx of fleeing soldiers, scholars, mystics, traders, artists, and artisans from those regions. This migration contributed to the development of a syncretic Indo-Islamic culture in northern India. The sultanate’s military actions and weakening of regional South Indian kingdoms eventually facilitated the rise of the Vijayanagara Empire. This empire, which adopted a strong Shaivite tradition and incorporated the military technology of the sultanate, came to dominate much of peninsular India and left a lasting impact on South Indian society.

In the 6th and 7th centuries, Tamil devotional hymns were first composed, setting a trend that spread throughout India. These hymns contributed to a revival of Hinduism and played a role in the evolution of the modern languages of the subcontinent. The patronage of temples by Indian royalty, both large and small, attracted large numbers of people to the capital cities, transforming them into significant economic centers. This period saw the rise of numerous temple towns as India experienced a new wave of urbanization. By the 8th and 9th centuries, the influence of South Indian culture and political systems extended to Southeast Asia, impacting regions that are now part of Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Brunei, Cambodia, Vietnam, the Philippines, Malaysia, and Indonesia. Indian merchants, scholars, and occasionally military forces were involved in this cultural exchange, but Southeast Asians also played an active role, studying in Indian institutions and translating Buddhist and Hindu texts into their own languages.

In the early 16th century, northern India, which was under primarily Muslim rulers at the time, was conquered by a new wave of Central Asian warriors with superior mobility and firepower. This led to the establishment of the Mughal Empire. Rather than obliterating local cultures, the Mughals integrated and pacified them through innovative administrative practices and a diverse ruling class, resulting in a more centralized and uniform governance system. Particularly under Akbar, the Mughals fostered unity across their extensive empire by promoting a Persian-influenced culture and elevating the emperor to a nearly divine status, while downplaying tribal and Islamic affiliations.

The empire’s economic strategies, which relied heavily on agriculture and required taxes to be paid in a regulated silver currency, encouraged peasants and artisans to engage in larger markets. This relative peace throughout much of the 17th century spurred economic growth in India, leading to increased patronage of the arts, including painting, literature, textiles, and architecture. During Mughal rule, emerging social groups like the Marathas, Rajputs, and Sikhs gained military and administrative experience, either through cooperation or conflict with the empire. This period also saw the rise of new commercial and political elites in southern and eastern India due to expanded trade. As the Mughal Empire declined, many of these new elites managed to assert and control their own regions.

By the early 18th century, as the distinction between commercial and political power became increasingly blurred, several European trading companies, including the English East India Company, had established outposts along the Indian coast. The East India Company’s naval superiority, greater resources, and advanced military training allowed it to assert its strength and attract support from segments of the Indian elite. These advantages were pivotal in enabling the company to gain control of the Bengal region by 1765 and marginalize other European competitors.

With access to Bengal’s wealth and a strengthened military, the East India Company expanded its influence and controlled most of India by the 1820s. During this period, India shifted from exporting manufactured goods to supplying raw materials for the British Empire, marking the beginning of its colonial era. As the East India Company’s economic role was increasingly restricted by the British Parliament and it became more integrated into British administration, it began to focus more on non-economic areas such as education, social reform, and cultural affairs.