History of Kerala

Introduction to the History of Kerala

The Sangam classic *Purananuru* recounts how Chera king Senkuttuvan conquered lands stretching from Kanyakumari to the Himalayas. Lacking formidable foes, he famously besieged the sea by casting his spear into it. In the 17th-century Hindu text *Keralolpathi*, the origins of Kerala are attributed to the axe-wielding sage Parashurama, the sixth avatar of Vishnu. According to this myth, Parashurama threw his axe across the sea, causing the waters to recede and revealing new land from Gokarna to Kanyakumari. Initially, this land was salty and uninhabitable, so Parashurama summoned the Snake King Vasuki, who spat holy poison to transform the soil into fertile land. In gratitude, Vasuki and all snakes were appointed as protectors of the region. P. T. Srinivasa Iyengar suggested that Senkuttuvan may have been inspired by the legend of Parashurama, which early Aryan settlers brought with them.

Another significant figure in Kerala’s mythology is Mahabali, an Asura known for his just reign over the land. He defeated the Devas, driving them into exile, prompting them to seek help from Lord Vishnu. Vishnu incarnated as Vamana to push Mahabali into the netherworld, restoring balance. It is believed that Mahabali visits Kerala once a year during the Onam festival. The ancient *Matsya Purana*, one of the oldest Puranas, also references the Malaya Mountains as the backdrop for the story of Matsya, the first incarnation of Vishnu, and Manu, the first human and king of the region.

Ancient History of Kerala

Kerala has exported spices since around 3000 BCE, as documented in Sumerian texts, which earned it the titles “Garden of Spices” and “Spice Garden of India.”

Early Global Spice Trade

Ancient traders from Arabia, Babylon, Assyria, and Egypt actively sought spices from the Malabar Coast during the 3rd and 2nd millennia BCE. The Phoenicians established trade routes with Kerala, and Arab traders initiated spice trading, likely introducing Kerala’s cinnamon to the Middle East. The Greek historian Herodotus observed that the Egyptians and Phoenicians dominated the cinnamon trade during his time.

Sangam Era and Chera Kingdom

Sangam literature describes how the Chera king Uthiyan Cheralathan ruled much of present-day Kerala from his capital in Kuttanad and controlled the vital port of Muziris. The Pandyas influenced the southern part of the region. Ancient texts frequently mention a trading port in the southern tip linked to Quilon, referred to as Nelcynda.

Importance of Tyndis and Lesser-Known Kingdoms

Tyndis served as an essential trade hub between the Chera kingdom and the Roman Empire, ranking second in importance after Muziris. The Ays and Mushikas ruled territories bordering the Chera region. Pliny the Elder noted that Tyndis lay at the northwestern edge of Keprobotos, although its exact location remains debated, with possible sites including Ponnani, Tanur, Beypore-Chaliyam-Kadalundi-Vallikkunnu, and Koyilandy.

Foreign Settlements in Kerala

Merchants from West Asia and Southern Europe established coastal settlements in Kerala, maintaining trade relations. Jewish traders arrived in Kerala as early as 573 BCE, establishing connections with the region.

Arab and Jewish Trade Links

Arabs began trading with Kerala before the 4th century BCE. Herodotus observed that people in Eden sold goods from Kerala to the Jews.

Migration of Knanaya Christians

In the 4th century CE, the Knanaya or Southist Christians migrated from Persia, joining the Saint Thomas Christians, who trace their origins to the missionary work of Thomas the Apostle in the 1st century CE.

Medieval History of Kerala

The Second Chera Kingdom, also called the Kulasekhara dynasty of Mahodayapuram (modern-day Kodungallur), emerged around 800 CE and lasted until 1102 CE under the rule of Kulasekhara Varman. This dynasty controlled a territory spanning all of modern Kerala and parts of present-day Tamil Nadu. Initially, the Ay kings ruled the southern region from Nagercoil to Thiruvalla, but by the 10th century, they lost their power, enabling the Kulasekhara empire to annex the area.

Cultural and Administrative Developments

During the Kulasekhara period, rulers promoted significant advancements in art, literature, trade, and the Bhakti movement in Hinduism. Keralites developed a distinct identity, linguistically separating from Tamil around the 7th century. People in Kerala introduced the Malayalam calendar around 825 CE. The empire organized its administration into provinces, with Naduvazhis overseeing them and Desavazhis managing smaller divisions called Desams. Residents celebrated the Mamankam festival, the largest local event, at Tirunavaya near Kuttippuram along the Bharathappuzha River. The Azhvanchery Thamprakkal, who held supreme religious authority among the Nambudiri Brahmins, managed their headquarters in Athavanad, near Tirunavaya.

Trade and Religious Influence

During the reign of Sthanu Ravi Varma in the 9th century, the Persian merchant Sulaiman al-Tajir observed extensive trade between Kerala and China, concentrated at the port of Kollam. Foreign accounts frequently mention the large Muslim presence in Kerala’s coastal towns. Arab historians like Al-Masudi, Muhammad al-Idrisi, Abulfeda, and Al-Dimashqi documented these communities. Historians believe the Mappilas were the first settled Muslim community in South Asia. The Quilon Syrian copper plates provide the earliest known reference to Muslims in Kerala.

Conflicts and Decline

The Chera-Chola wars in the 11th century disrupted foreign trade in Kerala’s ports. Later, Portuguese invasions in the 15th century accelerated the disappearance of Buddhism and Jainism from the region. During this period, the Menons of Malabar, known for their strong adherence to Jainism, gradually shifted away from the religion. Social structures fragmented along caste lines as these invasions progressed.

The Later Pandyas and Later Cholas launched a combined attack on the Kulasekhara dynasty, bringing it to an end in 1102 CE. However, in the 14th century, Ravi Varma Kulashekhara from the southern Venad kingdom established a short-lived dominance over southern India.

Early Modern History of Kerala

The Arabs controlled the maritime spice trade in the Arabian Sea during the High and Late Middle Ages.

Arrival of the Portuguese

The Age of Discovery challenged Arab dominance. Vasco da Gama reached Kappad, Kozhikode, in 1498, marking the arrival of the Portuguese in India. They began dominating eastern shipping, especially the spice trade, after establishing a sea route to Malabar. The Portuguese expanded their territories, controlling waters from Ormus to Malabar and south to Ceylon. In 1502, they set up a trading post at Tangasseri, Quilon, invited by the Queen of Quilon.

Portuguese and Local Alliances

The Kingdom of Tanur, a Zamorin vassal, allied with the Portuguese, becoming one of their first colonies. In 1504, Tanur forces fought for the Zamorin at the Battle of Cochin. Despite this, Tanur’s Mappila merchants remained loyal to the Zamorin. The Portuguese exploited rivalries between the Zamorin and the King of Kochi, an ally. Francisco de Almeida, appointed Viceroy of Portuguese India in 1505, established Fort Kochi (Fort Emmanuel) as his headquarters. He also built several fortresses along the Malabar Coast.

Resistance from the Zamorin

The Zamorin’s forces, led by the Kunjali Marakkars, fiercely resisted the Portuguese. These naval leaders are credited with organizing India’s first naval defense. Their pressure forced the Portuguese to negotiate a treaty.

Cultural Developments

During this time, Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan, the father of modern Malayalam literature, was born in Tirur (Vettathunadu).

Decline of Portuguese Influence

In 1571, Zamorin forces defeated the Portuguese at the Battle of Chaliyam Fort. An Arab-Portuguese uprising at Quilon Port further weakened Portuguese influence. Meanwhile, the Ali Rajas, a Muslim dynasty, ruled the Lakshadweep Islands as Kolathiri vassals.

Dutch and British Influence

In 1650, Shivappa Nayaka of Keladi built Bekal Fort, Kerala’s largest. The Dutch East India Company displaced the Portuguese, gaining trade control during Kozhikode-Kochi conflicts. The British arrived on the Malabar Coast in 1615, led by Captain William Keeling. Among the passengers was Sir Thomas Roe, an envoy to Mughal Emperor Jahangir.

Fort Kochi Municipality

In 1664, the Dutch created Fort Kochi Municipality, the first in India. It dissolved in the 18th century as Dutch power waned. This was the brief introduction of the history of Kerala.